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Coastal Engineering Manual: Overview And Coastal Hydrodynamics - Coastal engineering manual pdf download
Coastal engineering manual pdf download
North of Kotzebue Sound, barriers and cuspate forelands similar to those of North Carolina border the coast. The first cuspate foreland is the unusual Point Hope. Three more cuspate forelands extend along the coast terminating with Point Barrow, the most northern point of Alaska Shepard East of Point Barrow, the coast is dominated by river deltas. Rivers draining the Brooks Range and father east the Mackenzie, draining the northern Canadian Rockies, built these deltas even though the rivers flow only a short period each year.
Where the deltas are not actively building into the sea, extensive barrier islands can be found Shepard One of the dominant processes in shaping beaches in Alaska is the ride-up of shore ice Kovacs The barrier island immediately beyond the inlet is part of Eglin Air Force Base and has remained undeveloped. The beach in the foreground is Holiday Isle, which has been heavily commercialized.
This area of Florida is noted for its brilliant white quartz sand and excellent fishing. The inlet is a Federal navigation project with converging rubble-mound jetties.
Photograph taken March The Hawaiian archipelago extends from the large island of Hawaii across the central Pacific Ocean northwest to tiny Kure Atoll, km away. The eight main islands of the state of Hawaii, at the southeast end of the archipelago comprise 99 percent of the land area. Aside from manmade structures, the remainder of the shore consists primarily of outcrops or boulders of lava, but also includes muddy shores, gravel beaches, beach rock, raised reefs, and lithified sand dunes.
Elevations of the rocky shores vary from m high raised reefs to m sea cliffs along the Napali coast of Kauai. The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of volcanic mountains rising above the ocean floor about five km below the water surface. These volcanoes formed over a localized hot spot of magma generation. As the older volcanoes formed great shields and died, the movement of the ocean floor and crust moved them to the northwest.
A higher percentage of sand shores are found on the older islands, see Table I. Beaches on Hawaiian Islands are smaller than those on the continental shores, because of the young age of the islands, the absence of large rivers to supply sediment, and the shape and exposure of the island beaches to the wave systems that affect the islands. The sand on the beaches is also different in that it is primarily calcareous and of biologic origin. The calcareous sand originates as shells and test of animals or algae that live on the fringing reefs or shallow waters adjacent to the islands.
Two exceptions are some beaches near stream mouths are detritus basalt sand, and a few beaches on the island of Hawaii are black volcanic glass sand generated by the steam explosions that occur when hot lava flows into the ocean Moberly and Chamberlain The coastal geology of each island is derived from the erosion of the island shield and subsequent volcanic activity Campbell and Moberly This is the back side of the barrier island, with Mobile Bay in the right side of the photograph.
The dead trees clearly show that the shore has retreated within the last few years. In this portion of the Alabama shore, erosion on the back side of the barrier is a more serious threat than on the ocean side. Dulac, Louisiana March Located near the Gulf of Mexico entrance to the Houma Navigation Channel, many residents of Dulac and other towns in the Acadian parishes of southern Louisiana depend on the water for their livelihoods - shrimping, fishing, and servicing the offshore petroleum industry.
Although about 25 km from the Gulf, Dulac, at an elevation of m above sea level, is highly vulnerable to hurricanes and flooding. Together with the Saint Lawrence Seaway, they form a major shipping artery that is navigable inland for 3, km from the Atlantic by ocean-going vessels, except from about December through April when shipping is blocked by ice Figures I.
Geologically, the Great Lakes are relatively young, having been formed by glacial action during the Pleistocene period. Prior to the glacial age, the area occupied by Lake Superior was a broad valley and the area occupied by the other lakes was a spreading plain. During the ice period, glaciers deepened the bed of Lake Superior and gouged deep depressions forming the beds of the other lakes. As the ice sheet retreated, fingers of ice remained in the depressions, rimmed by glacial moraines and outwash plains.
Lakes were formed when the ice melted. Successive advances and retreats of the ice caps changed the drainage of the lake region until about 10, years ago. Then, the northern part of the area up warped or rebounded causing the lakes to drain into the St.
Lawrence through what is now the Niagara River. The shores of the Great Lakes and other freshwater lakes in the United States and throughout the world are as diverse as the ocean shores, featuring high and low erosive and non-erosive cliffs and bluffs, low plains, sandy beaches, dunes, barriers and wetlands Figure I. Not all shores are in equilibrium with the present littoral processes.
Shores with a character inherited from previous non-littoral processes i. Some shores exhibit short-term seasonal or episodic event-driven cyclic patterns of erosion and accretion e.
Atlantic coast. Other shores demonstrate long-term stability due to balanced sediment supply and little relative sea level rise influence, such as the west coast of Florida. For some shores, very little beach-building material is available, and what little is available may be prone to rapid transport, either alongshore or offshore e.
Prime examples are New Jersey, which was extensively modified during the 20th century and is now undergoing several major beach fills, and numerous urban areas around the country Los Angeles, New York, Galveston, Chicago, Miami, Palm Beach. Pacific coast tide and wave characteristics.
The Southernmost buoy shows high wave period because of the influence of swell waves and sheltering from wind waves provided by offshore islands. Pocket beach just north of Laguna Beach, southern California April Poorly consolidated sandstone and conglomerate bluffs in this area are highly vulnerable to erosion, jeopardizing exclusive residential properties.
Erosion is caused by storm waves and groundwater runoff. In order for one shore to accrete, often some other shore must erode. Erosion is a natural response to the water and wind processes at the shore, but erosion is only a problem when human development is at risk. Sometimes, man-made alterations to the littoral system, including modifications to sediment sources or sinks, may contribute to the eroded condition.
The National Shoreline Study DOA found that 24 percent of the entire United States shore of , km 84, miles is undergoing significant erosion where human development was threatened. If Alaska, with its 24, km. There are no absolute rules, nor absolute solutions to the problem of coastal erosion given the dynamic and the diverse character of the shoreline.
No single set of regulations, or single land use management philosophy, is appropriate for all coastal situations or settings. The diversity of the coasts requires consideration of a variety of solutions when addressing problems in a particular area. Solutions can be classified into five broad functional classes of engineering or management, as listed in Table I. Mouth of the Siuslaw River, southern Oregon near the town of Florence December ; view looking south.
This and other Federal navigation projects on the Oregon and Washington coasts are difficult and expensive to maintain because of high wave energy and a short construction season. The scale of these Pacific projects is difficult to appreciate from aerial photographs: the Siulslaw rubble-mound jetties, first built in , are m apart and the north jetty is m long. The shore in this area consists of long barrier spits interrupted with rocky headlands.
In the s Seattle was a timber town and point of embarkation for Alaska and the Orient. During the s and s, the port has prospered with container traffic and the export of grain and other agricultural products. Areas of the harbor need regular dredging.
Photograph July Sometimes the solutions require the use of hard static structures built of rock, steel, or concrete, and sometimes the solutions involve soft dynamic approaches, such as adding littoral material or modifying the vegetation. Chapter V-3, Shore Protection Projects provides a more detailed discussion of the options and limitations available to the coastal engineer. Minnesota Point, photographed from Duluth, Minnesota, looking south November This bay-mouth sand spit is reputed to be the largest fresh water barrier in the world.
It extends from the Wisconsin shore near Superior to the Minnesota shore at Duluth. Louis Bay, to the right, needs regular dredging because of silt and sand supplied by the St. Louis River. The northern part of Minnesota Point is developed with residential property. Nearby Duluth and Superior are both major industrial centers, accessible by ocean-going ships.
Calumet Harbor, Indiana September This is an example of the industrial infrastructure found in many of the Great Lakes cities that thrived from the s until the s.
Many of these steel mills are now closed, but some of the sites are being redeveloped for other purposes. Calumet is a Federal navigation project. The concrete cap on the breakwater in the foreground has shifted, indicating some damage to the underlying wood crib originally built in the s.
Duluth Canal, Minnesota November Thanks to the St. Lawrence Seaway and a network of locks, rivers, and canals, deep-draft ocean-going freighters can ship bulk commodities and goods throughout the Great Lakes.
This vessel is taking iron ore from the nearby Mesabe Iron Range to some distant port. Bluffs about 1 km north of St. Joseph Harbor, eastern Lake Michigan November In this area, the sand and clay bluffs are receding at an average rate of between 0. They are highly vulnerable to ground water seepage and, during periods of high lake level, to wave attack. Freshly-slumped clay blocks can be seen on the bluff face in the right side of the image. Berryhill, H. Campbell, J. Hawaii, Bird, E.
Columbia University Press, Encyclopedia. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. Kovacs, A. Viking New York, p. Moberly, R. Shepard, Francis P. North America, Coastal Morphology. Editor, Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co. Andrew Morang, Ph. Fiscal year dredging by the U.
Army Corps of Engineers at coastal projects. The history of coastal engineering reaches back to the ancient world bordering the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf Coastal engineering, as it relates to harbors, starts with the development of maritime traffic, perhaps before B. Shipping was fundamental to culture and the growth of civilization, and the expansion of navigation and communication in turn drove the practice of coastal engineering.
The availability of a large slave labor force during this era meant that docks, breakwaters, and other harbor works were built by hand and often in a grand scale similar to their monumental contemporaries, pyramids, temples, and palaces. Some of the harbor works are still visible today, while others have recently been explored by archaeologists. Most of the grander ancient harbor works disappeared following the fall of the Roman Empire.
Earthquakes have buried some of the works, others have been submerged by subsidence, landlocked by silting, or lost through lack of maintenance. Recently, archaeologists, using modern survey techniques, excavations, and old documents, have revealed some of the sophisticated engineering in these old harbors.
Technically interesting features have shown up and are now reappearing in modern port designs. Common to most ancient ports was a well-planned and effectively located seawall or breakwater for protection and a quay or mole for loading vessels, features frequently included in modern ports Quinn Most ancient coastal efforts were directed to port structures, with the exception of a few places where life depended on coastline protection.
Venice and its lagoon is one such case. Here, sea defenses hydraulic and military were necessary for the survival of the narrow coastal strips, and impressive shore protection works built by the Venetians are still admired. Very few written reports on the ancient design and construction of coastal structures have survived.
A classic treatise by Vitruvius 27 B. Greek and Latin literature by Herodotus, Josephs, Suetonius, Pliny, Appian, Polibus, Strabo, and others provide limited descriptions of the ancient coastal works. They understood such phenomena as the Mediterranean currents and wind patterns and the wind-wave cause-effect link.
The Romans are credited with first introducing wind roses Franco Most early harbors were natural anchorages in favorable geographical conditions such as sheltered bays behind capes or peninsulas, behind coastal islands, at river mouths, inside lagoons, or in deep coves. Short breakwaters were eventually added to supplement the natural protection.
The harbors, used for refuge, unloading of goods, and access to fresh water, were closely spaced to accommodate the safe day-to-day transfer of the shallow draft wooden vessels which sailed coastwise at speeds of only knots. Ancient ports can be divided into three groups according to their structural patterns and the development of engineering skill Frost The earliest were rock cut, in that natural features like offshore reefs were adapted to give shelter to craft riding at anchor.
In the second group, vertical walls were built on convenient shallows to serve as breakwaters and moles. Harbors of this type were in protected bays, and often the walls connected with the defenses of a walled town for example, ancient Tyre on the Lebanese coast.
Often these basins were closeable to traffic using chains to prevent the entry of enemy ships Franco The third group were harbors that were imposed on even unpromising coasts by use of Roman innovations such as the arch and improved hydraulic cement. Projects like this required the engineering, construction, and financing resources of a major empire. All ancient ports had one thing in common: they had to be kept clear of silt at a time when mechanical dredging was unknown. This was accomplished by various means.
One was by designing the outer parts of the harbor so that they deflected silt-bearing currents. The second was by allowing a controlled current to flow through the port or by flushing it out when necessary by means of channels. For example, at Sidon, a series of tanks like swimming pools were cut into the harbor side of a natural rock reef.
The tanks filled with clear water that was held in place with sluice gates. When the gates were opened, currents of clear water would flush the inner harbor. Documentary and archaeological evidence show that both Tyre and Sidon were flourishing and powerful ports from the Bronze Age through the Roman era and must therefore have been kept clear of silt for over a thousand years Frost Another method of preventing silt consisted of diverting rivers through canals so that during part or much of the year, the flow would enter the sea at location well away from the harbor.
The origins of breakwaters are unknown. Inman The breakwater was small and constructed of material taken from nearby dune rock quarries Inman , Figure 4. In the Mediterranean, size and sophistication of breakwaters increased over time as the Egyptian, Phoenician, Greco-Macedonian, and Roman civilizations developed and evolved.
Breakwaters were built in China but generally at a later date than in the Mediterranean. Probably the most sophisticated man-made harbor of this era was the first harbor of Alexandria, Egypt, built west of Pharos Island about B. The main basin, built to accommodate ships about 35 m in length, was 2, m long, m wide and m deep.
Large stone blocks were used in the many breakwaters and docks in the harbor. Alexander the Great and his Greek successors rebuilt the harbor B. The Island of Pharos was joined to the mainland by a 1. Alexandria is probably best known for the m-high lighthouse tower used to guide ships on a featureless coast to the port from 50 km at sea. The multi-storied building was built with solid blocks of stone cemented together with melted lead and lined with white stone slabs.
Considered one of the Wonders of the Ancient World, it eventually collapsed due to earthquakes between and Franco , Empereur Another feature of the Greek harbors was the use of colossal statues to mark the entrances. Colossal statues of King Ptolemy, which stood at the base of the lighthouse, have been found with the lighthouse debris.
Historians report the most famous harbor statue was the 30 m high Colossus of Rhodes, which stood on the breakwater heads. Three ancient windmill towers are still surviving upon the Rhodes breakwater Franco Frost notes that the Greeks had used hydraulic cement long before the Romans. The Romans introduced many revolutionary innovations in harbor design.
They learned to build walls underwater and constructed solid breakwaters to protect exposed harbors. They used metal joints and clamps to fasten neighboring blocks together and are often credited with discovering hydraulic cement made with pozzolanic ash obtained from the volcanic region near Naples, which hardens underwater. The Romans replaced many of the Greek nibble mound breakwaters with vertical and composite concrete walls.
These monolithic coastal structures could be built rapidly and required little maintenance. In some cases wave reflection may have been used to prevent silting. In most cases, rubble or large stone slabs were placed in front of the walls to protect against toe scour. The Romans developed cranes and pile drivers and used them extensively in their construction.
This technology also led them to develop dredges. Another advanced technique used for deep-water applications was the watertight floating cellular caisson, precursor of the modern day monolithic breakwater. They also used low, water-surface breakwaters to trip the waves before they reached the main breakwater. The peculiar feature of the vertical wall breakwater at Thapsus Rass Dimas, Tunisia was the presence of vents through the wall to reduce wave impact forces.
This idea is used today in the construction of perforated caisson breakwaters Franco Using some of these techniques, the Romans built sophisticated breakwaters at Aquileia, Italy ca. The southwestern breakwater at Caesarea contained a forebreakwater that acted as a submerged reef that trips the wave causing it to break and dissipate energy before encountering the main breakwater Inman The largest manmade harbor complex was the imperial port of Rome; the maritime town at the mouth of the Tiber River was named Portus The Port.
It is now some four km from the sea, partly buried under Rome-Fiumicino airport. The port of Centumcellae was built just to serve his villa at a site with favorable rocky morphology. A grandiose engineering project between B. Slaves from all parts of the empire excavated a harbor and hauled in massive stones to create an artificial harbor to dampen the force of the waves. After the decline of Portus, it became, and remains, the Port of Rome.
Roman engineers also constructed harbors in northern Europe along the main waterways of the Rhine and Danube and in Lake Geneva. They became the first dredgers in the Netherlands to maintain the harbor at Velsen. Silting problems here were solved when the previously sealed solid piers were replaced with new open -piled jetties.
In general, the Romans spread their technology throughout the western world. Their harbors became independent infrastructures, with their own buildings and storage sheds as opposed to the pre-Roman fortified city-enclosed harbors.
They developed and properly used a variety of design concepts and construction techniques at different coastal cites to suit the local hydraulic and morphological conditions and available materials Franco The Romans also introduced to the world the concept of the holiday at the coast. The ingredients for beach holidays were in place: high population density coupled with a relatively high standard of living, a well-established economic and social elite, and a superb infrastructure of roads.
From the end of the republic to the middle of the second century of the empire, resorts thrived along the shores of Latium and Capania, and an unbroken string of villas extended along the coast from the seashore near Rome to the white cliffs of Terracina.
Fine roads connected these resorts to the capital, allowing both the upper crust and the masses to descend from sultry and vapor-ridden Rome to the sea. For five hundred years, the sybaritic town of Baiae reigned as the greatest fashionable beach resort of the ancient world. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a long hiatus in coastal technology and engineering prevailed throughout most of the European world with a few exceptions. Little is recorded on civil engineering achievements during the Dark and Middle Ages.
The threat of attack from the sea caused many coastal towns and their harbors to be abandoned. Many harbors were lost due to natural causes such as rapid silting, shoreline advance or retreat, etc.
The Venice lagoon was one of the few populated coastal areas with continuous prosperity and development where written reports document the evolution of coastal protection works, ranging from the use of wicker faggots to reinforce the dunes to timber piles and stones, often combined in a sort of crib work.
Protection from the sea was so vital to the Venetians, that laws from to did not allow anyone to cut or burn trees from coastal woods, pick out mussels from the rock revetments, let cattle upon the dikes, remove sand or vegetation from the beaches or dunes, or export materials used for shore protection Franco In England, coastal engineering works date back to the Romans, who recognized the danger of floods and sea inundation of low-lying lands.
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Read preview. About this ebook The Coastal Engineering Manual CEM provides a single, comprehensive technical document that incorporates tools and procedures to plan, design, construct, and maintain coastal projects.
This engineering manual will include the basic principles of coastal processes, methods for computing coastal planning and design parameters, and guidance on how to formulate and conduct studies in support of coastal flooding, shore protection, and navigation projects.
Topics in this volume include an introduction to coastal engineering, coastal diversity, history of coastal engineering, meteorology and wave climate, estimation of nearshore waves, surf zone, hydrodynamics, water levels and long waves, hydrodynamics of tidal inlets, harbor hydrodynamics, and hydrodynamic analysis and design conditions. Language English. Publisher Lulu. Release date Mar 28, ISBN Related to Coastal Engineering Manual Related ebooks.
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This Change 1 to EM , 30 April , includes the following changes and updates: Part Incorporates new chapter titles. Formulas corrected. Numerous changes to formulas, coefficients, and figures. New findings on the subject matter have been added. Table and figure improved. References corrected. Appendix A. Additional terms added and some definitions modified. EM Change 1 31 Jul 03 4. Distribution Statement. Approved for public release, distribution unlimited.
The value of e used in Eq. II has been corrected. Part IV Corrections have been made to references. Citation of an Engineer Regulation has been corrected. Minor text changes, corrections to references and Figure V. Links to other parts of the CEM that were planned but never written have been deleted. Purpose and Scope I Applicability I Definitions a. Coastal b. Coastal engineering c. Coastal science I Bibliography I References I Purpose and Scope The Coastal Engineering Manual CEM assembles in a single source the current state-of-the-art in coastal engineering to provide appropriate guidance for application of techniques and methods to the solution of most coastal engineering problems.
Applicability This manual is applicable to U. In addition, a growing number of general and specialized textbooks on coastal engineering have been published. Areas of concern to coastal engineers are demonstrated by the following list of typical coastal engineering activities:. Design of a variety of stable, eVective, and economic coastal structures including breakwaters, jetties, groins, revetments, seawalls, piers, oVshore towers, and marine pipelines.
Stabilization of entrances for navigation and water exchange by dredging, construction of structures, and the mechanical bypassing of sediment trapped at the entrances. Prediction of inlet and estuary currents and water levels and their eVect on channel stability and water quality.
Development of works to protect coastal areas from inundation by storm surge and tsunamis. Functional and structural design of harbors and marinas and their appurtenances including quays, bulkheads, dolphins, piers, and mooring systems. Functional and structural design of oVshore islands and dredge spoil disposal areas. Monitoring various coastal projects through a variety of measurements in the Weld.
A major source of support for coastal engineers is the available literature on past coastal engineering works along with the design guidance published in textbooks; manuals from government agencies; and special studies conducted by university, government, and consulting Wrm personnel. Additional design tools generally fall into one of the following categories:. Many aspects of coastal engineering analysis and design have a strong analytical foundation. This includes theories for the prediction of individual wave characteristics and the properties of wave spectra, for the calculation of wave-induced forces on structures, for the eVect of structures on wave propagation, and for the prediction of tide-induced currents and water level changes.
Many coastal engineering laboratories have two- and three-dimensional Xumes in which monochromatic and spectral waves can be generated to study fundamental phenomena as well as the eVects of waves in models of prototype situations.
Examples of model studies include wave propagation toward the shore and into harbors, the stability of structures subjected to wave attack and the amount of wave overtopping and transmission that occurs at these structures, the response of beaches to wave attack, and the stability and morphological changes at coastal inlets owing to tidal Xow and waves.
Various computer models that numerically solve the basic wave, Xow, and sediment transport equations have been developed. These include models for wind wave prediction, for the analysis of wave transformation from deep water to the nearshore zone, for the surge levels caused by hurricanes and other storms, for the resonant response of harbors and other water bodies to long period wave motion, and for the sediment transport and resulting shoreline change caused by a given set of incident wave conditions.
An invaluable tool for coastal engineers is the collection of data in the Weld. This includes measurements of wave conditions, current patterns, water levels, shore plan and proWle changes, and wave-induced damage to structures. There is a great need for more postconstruction monitoring of the performance of most types of coastal works. In addition, laboratory and numerical models require prototype data so that the models can be adequately calibrated and veriWed.
The wind wave and surge levels that most coastal works are ultimately exposed to are usually quite extreme. It is generally not economical to design for these conditions.
The design often proceeds for some lesser wave and surge condition with the understanding that the structures will be repaired as needed. Compared to most other areas of civil engineering e. This is because of the less predictable nature of the marine environment and the relative lack of an extensive experience base required to establish codes.
With the explosion in the capabilities of computers there has been a parallel explosion in the types and sophistication of numerical models for analysis of coastal phenomena. In many, but not all, areas numerical models are supplementing and replacing physical models. Some areas such as storm surge prediction can be eVectively handled only by a numerical model.
On the other hand, some problems such as wave runup and overtopping of coastal structures or the stability of stone mound structures to wave attack are best handled in the laboratory. There is a trend toward softer and less obtrusive coastal structures. In some coastal areas coastal structures are discouraged. There has been a signiWcant increase in the capability and availability of instrumentation for Weld measurements.
For example, three decades ago wave gages commonly measured only the water surface Xuctuation at a point i. Now directional spectral wave gages are commonly used in Weld studies. Wave generation capabilities in laboratories have signiWcantly improved.
Prior to the s only constant period and height monochromatic waves were generated. In the s one-dimensional spectral wave generators became common-place. Now directional spectral wave generators are found at many laboratories. For practical design guidance the reader should see, for example, the design manuals published by the U. Army Corps of Engineers including the Coastal Engineering Manual and the various Engineering Manuals dealing with coastal engineering topics.
A good source of detailed information on the various subjects encompassed by coastal engineering is the broad range of reports published by many government laboratories including the U. Several universities conduct coastal engineering studies and publish reports on this work. As mentioned previously, there are many general and specialty conferences dealing with various aspects of coastal engineering. The published proceedings of these conferences are an important source of information on the basic and applied aspects of coastal engineering.
Many senior coastal engineers were introduced to coastal engineering by two texts published in the s: Oceanographical Engineering by R. Since the s a number of texts on coastal engineering or a speciWc facet of coastal engineering have been published. A selective list of these texts follows: Abbott, M.
Bruun, P. Dean, R. Goda, Y. Herbich, J. Horikawa, K. Hughes, S. Kamphius, J. Komar, P. Pilarczyk, K. Balkema, Rotterdam. Sarpkaya, T. Sawaragi, T. Sorensen, R.
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